part of the Virtual Library

Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology

© Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta

Last update: 2009-07-25

Definition: the technology of transmitting information through optical fibers

Optical fibers can be used to transmit light and thus information over long distances. Fiber-based systems have largely replaced radio transmitter systems for long-haul optical data transmission. They are widely used for telephony, but also for Internet traffic, long high-speed local area networks (LANs), cable TV, and increasingly also for shorter distances. In most cases, silica fibers are used, except for very short distances, where plastic optical fibers can be advantageous.

Compared with systems based on electrical cables, the approach of optical fiber communications (lightwave communications) has advantages, the most important of which are:

• The capacity of fibers for data transmission is huge: a single silica fiber can carry hundreds of thousands of telephone channels, utilizing only a small part of the theoretical capacity. In the last 30 years, the progress concerning transmission capacities of fiber links has been significantly faster than e.g. the progress in the speed or storage capacity of computers.
• The losses for light propagating in fibers are amazingly small: ∼ 0.2 dB/km for modern single-mode silica fibers, so that many tens of kilometers can be bridged without amplifying the signals.
• A large number of channels can be reamplified in a single fiber amplifier, if required for very large transmission distances.
• Due to the huge transmission rate achievable, the cost per transported bit can be extremely low.
• Compared with electrical cables, fiber-optic cables are very lightweight, so that the cost of laying a fiber-optic cable can be lower.
• Fiber-optic cables are immune to problems that arise with electrical cables, such as ground loops or electromagnetic interference (EMI).

However, fiber systems are more sophisticated to install and operate, so that they tend to be less economical if their full transmission capacity is not required. Therefore, the “last mile” (the connection to the homes and offices) and is usually still bridged with electrical cables, whereas fiber-based communications do the bulk of the long-haul transmission. Gradually, however, fiber communications are being used within metropolitan areas (metro fiber links), and even fiber to the home (FTTH) is being developed – particularly in Japan, where private Internet users can already obtain affordable Internet connections with data rates of 100 Mbit/s – well above the performance of current ADSL systems, which use electrical telephone lines.

Telecom Windows

Optical fiber communications typically operate in a wavelength region corresponding to one of the following “telecom windows”:

• The first window at 800–900 nm was originally used. GaAs/AlGaAs-based laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) served as transmitters, and silicon photodiodes were suitable for the receivers. However, the fiber losses are relatively high in this region, and fiber amplifiers are not well developed for this spectral region. Therefore, the first telecom window is suitable only for short-distance transmission.
• The second telecom window utilizes wavelengths around 1.3 μm, where the loss of silica fibers is much lower and the fibers' chromatic dispersion is very weak, so that dispersive broadening is minimized. This window was originally used for long-haul transmission. However, fiber amplifiers for 1.3 μm (based on, e.g. on praseodymium-doped glass) are not as good as their 1.5-μm counterparts based on erbium. Also, low dispersion is not necessarily ideal for long-haul transmission, as it can increase the effect of optical nonlinearities.
• The third telecom window, which is now very widely used, utilizes wavelengths around 1.5 μm. The losses of silica fibers are lowest in this region, and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are available which offer very high performance. Fiber dispersion is usually anomalous but can be tailored with great flexibility (→ dispersion-shifted fibers).

The second and third telecom windows are further subdivided into the following wavelength bands:

The second and third telecom windows were originally separated by a pronounced loss peak around 1.4 μm, but they can effectively be joined with advanced fibers with low OH content which do not exhibit this peak.

System Design

The simplest type of fiber-optic communication system is a fiber-optic link providing a point-to-point connection with a single data channel. Such a link essentially contains a transmitter for sending the information optically, a transmission fiber for transmitting the light over some distance, and a receiver. The transmission fiber may be equipped with additional components such as fiber amplifiers for regenerating the optical power or dispersion compensators for counteracting the effects of chromatic dispersion. The article on fiber-optic links gives more details.

A typical channel capacity for long-haul transmission is nowadays 2.5 or 10 Gbit/s; 40, 100 or even 160 Gbit/s may be used in the future. More advanced systems increase the transmission capacity by simultaneously using several or even many different wavelength channels (coarse or dense wavelength division multiplexing). The main challenges are to suppress channel cross-talk via nonlinearities, to balance the channel powers (e.g. with gain-flattened fiber amplifiers), and to simplify the systems. Another approach is time division multiplexing, where several input channels are combined by nesting in the time domain, and solitons are often used to ensure that the sent ultrashort pulses stay cleanly separated even at small pulse-to-pulse spacings.

Another important development is that of systems which link many different stations with a sophisticated fiber-optic network. This approach can be very flexible and powerful, but also raises a number of non-trivial technical issues, such as the need for adding or dropping wavelength channels, ideally in a fully reconfigurable manner, or to constantly readjust the connection topology so as to obtain optimum performance, or to properly handle faults so as to minimize their impact on the overall system performance. As many different concepts (e.g. concerning topologies, modulation formats, dispersion management, nonlinear management, and software) and new types of devices (senders, receivers, fibers, fiber components, electronic circuits) are constantly being developed, it is not clear so far which kind of system will dominate the future of optical fiber communications.

For a discussion of aspects such as bit error rates and power penalties, see the article on optical data transmission.

Transmission Capacity of Optical Fibers

Within the last 30 years, the transmission capacity of optical fibers has been increased enormously. The rise in available transmission bandwidth per fiber is even significantly faster than e.g. the increase in storage capacity of electronic memory chips, or in the increase in computation power of microprocessors.

The transmission capacity of a fiber depends on the fiber length. The longer a fiber is, the more detrimental certain effects such intermodal or chromatic dispersion are, and the lower is the achievable transmission rate.

For short distances of a few hundred meters or less (e.g. within storage area networks), it is often more convenient to utilize multimode fibers, as these are cheaper to install (for example, due to their large core areas, they are easier to splice). Depending on the transmitter technology and fiber length, they achieve data rates between a few hundred Mbit/s and ∼ 10 Gbit/s.

Single-mode fibers are typically used for longer distances of a few kilometers or more. Current commercial telecom systems typically transmit 2.5 or 10 Gbit/s per data channel over distances of ten kilometers or more. Future systems may use higher data rates per channel of 40 or even 160 Gbit/s, but currently the required total capacity is usually obtained by transmitting many channels with slightly different wavelengths through fibers; this is called wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). Total data rates can be several terabits per second, sufficient for transmitting many millions of telephone channels simultaneously. Even this capacity does not reach by far the physical limit of an optical fiber. In addition, note that a fiber-optic cable can contain multiple fibers.

In conclusion, there should be no concern that technical limitations to fiber-optic data transmission could become severe in the foreseeable future. On the contrary, the fact that data transmission capacities can evolve faster than e.g. data storage and computational power, has inspired some people to predict that any transmission limitations will soon become obsolete, and large computation and storage facilities within high-capacity data networks will be extensively used, in a similar way as it has become common to use electrical power from many power stations within a large power grid. Such developments may be more severely limited by software and security issues than by the limitations of data transmission.

Key Components for Optical Fiber Communications

Optical fiber communication systems rely on a number of key components:

• optical transmitters, based mostly on semiconductor lasers (often VCSELs), fiber lasers, and optical modulators
• optical receivers, mostly based on photodiodes (often avalanche photodiodes)
• optical fibers with optimized properties concerning losses, guiding properties, dispersion, and nonlinearities
• dispersion-compensating modules
• semiconductor and fiber amplifiers (mostly erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, sometimes Raman amplifiers) for maintaining sufficient signal powers over long lengths of fibers, or as preamplifiers before signal detection
• optical filters (e.g. based on fiber Bragg gratings) and couplers
• optical switches and multiplexers (e.g. based on arrayed waveguide gratings); for example, optical add/drop multiplexers (OADMs) allow wavelength channels to be added or dropped in a WDM system
• electrically controlled optical switches
• devices for signal regeneration (electronic or optical regenerators), clock recovery and the like
• various kinds of electronics e.g. for signal processing and monitoring
• computers and software to control the system operation

In many cases, optical and electronic components for fiber communications are combined on photonic integrated circuits. Further progress in this technological area will help optical fiber communications to be extended to private households (→ fiber to the home) and small offices.

Bibliography

See also: fibers, telecom fibers, silica fibers, erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, optical data transmission, fiber-optic links, fiber-optic networks, quantum cryptography, fiber to the home, free-space optical communications

Categories: communications, fibers and other waveguides

This encyclopedia is authored by Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta, the founder and executive of RP Photonics Consulting GmbH. Contact this distinguished expert in laser technology, nonlinear optics and fiber optics, and find out how his technical consulting services (e.g. product designs, problem solving, independent evaluations, or staff training) could become very valuable for your business!

Since October 2008, the Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology is also available in the form of a two-volume book. Maybe you would enjoy reading it also in that form! The print version has a carefully designed layout and can be considered a must-have for any institute library, laser research group, or laser company.

You may order the print version via Wiley-VCH.